Bpharm 8th-semester notes

Bpharm 2nd-semester notes in pdf – Free Download

Bpharm 2nd-semester notes in pdf – Free Download ALL SUBJECTS


HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-II

UNIT –1

Nervous system

The nervous system is a complex network of cells and tissues that coordinates actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of the body. It can be divided into two major parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

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UNIT – 2

Digestive system, Energetics

The digestive system and energetics involve the process of breaking down food into nutrients that the body can use for energy, growth, and repair. Here’s an overview of each:

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UNIT – 3

Respiratory system, Urinary system

The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the body and the environment. It includes the following major components:

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UNIT – 4

Endocrine system

The endocrine system consists of glands and organs that produce, store, and release hormones. These hormones regulate various body functions, including metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood

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UNIT – 5

Reproductive system, Introduction to genetics

The reproductive system is responsible for producing, storing, and delivering gametes (sperm and eggs), facilitating fertilization, and supporting the development of offspring. It differs between males and females.

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PHARMACEUTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY-I

UNIT – 1

Classification, nomenclature and isomerism

Classification in biology is the method by which scientists group and categorize organisms and other biological entities. The primary goal of classification is to organize and make sense of the diversity of life.

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UNIT – 2

AlkanesAlkenes and Conjugated dienes

Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. They follow the general formula Cn​H2n+2​​. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, meaning they have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon atom. They are also known as paraffins.

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UNIT – 3

Alkyl halides, Alcohols

Alkyl halides, also known as haloalkanes, are organic compounds where one or more hydrogen atoms in an alkane have been replaced by halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine). They have the general formula R−XR-XR−X, where RRR represents an alkyl group and XXX represents a halogen.

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UNIT – 4

Carbonyl compounds (Aldehydes and ketones)

Carbonyl compounds are organic molecules that contain a carbonyl group (C=O). The two primary classes of carbonyl compounds are aldehydes and ketones. The carbonyl group is a highly reactive functional group due to the polarization of the carbon-oxygen double bond.

Aldehydes

Aldehydes have the general formula RCHORCHORCHO, where RRR can be a hydrogen atom or a hydrocarbon group.

Ketones

Ketones have the general formula RCOR′RCOR’RCOR′, where RRR and R′R’R′ are hydrocarbon groups.

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UNIT – 5

Carboxylic acids, Aliphatic amines

Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic acids are organic compounds containing a carboxyl group (-COOH). They are characterized by the presence of both a carbonyl group (C=O) and a hydroxyl group (OH) attached to the same carbon atom

Aliphatic Amines

Aliphatic amines are organic compounds derived from ammonia (NH₃) where one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. They contain a nitrogen atom bonded to carbon atoms in an open chain structure (aliphatic).

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BIOCHEMISTRY

UNIT – 1

Biomolecules, Bioenergetics

Biomolecules

Biomolecules are molecules that are essential to the structure, function, and maintenance of living organisms. They are primarily organic compounds, meaning they contain carbon atoms, and they include a wide range of molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Bioenergetics

Bioenergetics refers to the study of energy flow (including energy transfer and transformation) within living systems. It involves understanding how organisms acquire, transform, store, and utilize energy to sustain life processes.

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UNIT – 2

Carbohydrate metabolism, Biological oxidation

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Carbohydrate metabolism refers to the biochemical processes by which carbohydrates are broken down and converted into energy within living organisms. Carbohydrates are an essential source of energy and serve as a vital component of the diet in humans and many other organisms.

Biological Oxidation

Biological oxidation refers to the process by which cells extract energy from nutrients through the transfer of electrons from food molecules to oxygen. This process is fundamental to cellular respiration and ATP production, enabling organisms to perform essential functions and maintain homeostasis.

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UNIT – 3

Lipid metabolism, Amino acid metabolism

Lipid Metabolism

Lipid metabolism encompasses the processes by which lipids (fats) are synthesized, broken down, and utilized in living organisms. Lipids serve as a crucial energy source, structural component of cell membranes, and precursors for various signaling molecules and hormones.

Amino Acid Metabolism

Amino acid metabolism refers to the biochemical processes involved in the synthesis, breakdown, and interconversion of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids play essential roles in protein synthesis, energy production, neurotransmitter synthesis, and nitrogen balance within the body.

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UNIT – 4

Nucleic acid metabolism and genetic information transfer

Nucleic Acid Metabolism

Nucleic acid metabolism encompasses the processes involved in the synthesis, degradation, and regulation of nucleic acids, which are essential biomolecules responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Nucleic acids primarily include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).

Genetic Information Transfer

Genetic information transfer refers to the transmission of genetic instructions encoded in DNA from one generation to the next or from DNA to RNA during gene expression. This process is crucial for maintaining genetic continuity, regulating cellular functions, and determining an organism’s traits and characteristics.

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UNIT – 5

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological molecules (usually proteins) that act as catalysts in biochemical reactions. They accelerate the rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy required for a reaction to proceed, without being consumed or permanently altered in the process. Enzymes play critical roles in metabolism, signal transduction, and other essential cellular processes.

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PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

UNIT – 1

Basic principles of Cell injury and Adaptation, Basic mechanism involved in the process of inflammation and repair

Basic Principles of Cell Injury and Adaptation

Cell injury refers to the damaging effects on cells caused by various stressors, such as physical trauma, chemical agents, infections, or lack of oxygen (hypoxia). Cells can respond to injury through adaptive mechanisms to maintain homeostasis or undergo irreversible damage leading to cell death.

Basic Mechanisms Involved in Inflammation and Repair

Inflammation is a complex biological response to tissue injury, infection, or irritation, aimed at eliminating the initial cause of cell injury, clearing necrotic cells and tissues, and initiating tissue repair.

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UNIT – 2

Cardiovascular System, Respiratory system, Renal system

Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system, also known as the circulatory system, is responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and cellular waste products throughout the body. It consists of the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries), and blood.

Respiratory System

The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the body and the environment. It involves the lungs and other respiratory structures.

Renal System (Urinary System)

The renal system, also known as the urinary system, is responsible for filtering blood to remove waste products, maintaining electrolyte balance, regulating blood pressure, and producing urine.

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UNIT – 3

Haematological Diseases, Endocrine system, Nervous system, Gastrointestinal system

Haematological Diseases

Haematological diseases, also known as blood disorders, involve abnormalities in the production, function, or destruction of blood cells or components of the blood. These disorders can affect red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), platelets, or plasma proteins, leading to various clinical manifestations.

Endocrine System

The endocrine system comprises glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various physiological processes, including metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, and response to stress.

Nervous System

The nervous system coordinates and controls body activities through electrical impulses and chemical signals. It consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Gastrointestinal System

The gastrointestinal (GI) system, also known as the digestive system, processes food for nutrient absorption and waste elimination, involving organs such as the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.

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UNIT – 4

Inflammatory bowel diseases, Disease of bones and joints, Principles of cancer, Principles of Cancer

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD)

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, characterized by periods of exacerbation and remission. The two main types of IBD are Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis.

Diseases of Bones and Joints

Diseases affecting bones and joints can include a wide range of conditions affecting the skeletal system, joints, and connective tissues.

Principles of Cancer

Cancer refers to a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and the ability of these cells to invade other tissues and organs. Cancer can originate from any tissue in the body and is driven by genetic mutations that disrupt normal cellular processes

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UNIT – 5

Infectious diseases, Sexually transmitted disease

Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. These diseases can be spread directly or indirectly from one person to another, through contact with contaminated surfaces, air droplets, or vectors like insects. Here are some key points about infectious diseases:

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), also known as sexually transmitted infections (STIs), are infections spread through sexual contact (vaginal, anal, or oral). These infections can be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi and may have serious health consequences if untreated. Here are some key points about STDs:

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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY

UNIT – 1

Number system, Concept of Information Systems and Software

Number Systems

Number systems are methods of representing and expressing numbers. They are fundamental in mathematics, computing, and everyday life, providing different ways to encode numerical values. Here are some key concepts:

Concept of Information Systems and Software

Information Systems (IS) and Software are critical components in modern technology and business operations, facilitating data processing, storage, retrieval, and communication. Here’s an overview:

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UNIT – 2

Web technologies

Web technologies encompass a broad range of tools, languages, protocols, and standards used for building and maintaining websites and web applications. These technologies facilitate the creation of dynamic, interactive, and user-friendly experiences on the internet. Here are some key components and concepts in web technologies:

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UNIT – 3

Application of computers in Pharmacy

Computers play a crucial role in various aspects of pharmacy practice, enhancing efficiency, accuracy, and patient care. Here are several key applications of computers in pharmacy:

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UNIT – 4

Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that combines biology, computer science, mathematics, and statistics to analyze and interpret biological data, particularly large datasets generated from biological research. Here are the key aspects and applications of bioinformatics:

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UNIT – 5

Computers as data analysis in Preclinical development

omputers play a crucial role in data analysis during preclinical development, which encompasses the early stages of drug discovery and development before human clinical trials. Here’s how computers are utilized for data analysis in this context:

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

UNIT – 1

The Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies, Natural Resources

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UNIT – 2

Ecosystems

Ecosystems are dynamic communities of living organisms (biotic factors) interacting with their physical environment (abiotic factors). They vary widely in size, complexity, and biodiversity, ranging from small ponds to vast rainforests. Here are key aspects and components of ecosystems:

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UNIT – 3

Environmental Pollution: Air pollution; Water pollution; Soil pollution

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